Camelids have unique mechanisms to deal with the extremes of their environment. In order to survive through the "feast and famine" cycle dictated by the weather pattern and the poor-quality feed, they are extremely efficient in their metabolism and feed-to-flesh conversion. They also store fat against the long dry season. They can gain weight even on the fibrous ychu, which averages only 7% protein.  Their stomach has three chambers to best utilize forage: the rumen, which stores food until it can be re-chewed as cud; and a large second stomach compartment which has one side covered with "sacules" --little pockets where the food is further fermented. This system allows them to get every possible calorie from the food they eat, an efficiency demonstrated by how little is left in the manure---it has far less odor than that of most mammals.

Llamas also have their own method of coping with climate. The coat consists of a very fine wool undercoat for keeping  warm, and a tough guard hair outer coat which sheds rain. This coat is heaviest around the torso on the upper side; most llamas (and all wild lamas) have shorter wool and "horsehide" on the chest, inner legs, belly and under the tail. To keep warm, they face into the wind, sit down, tuck their legs under them, warm their spot and stay put. In hot weather, they will sometimes seek shade, but when they sit, it will be with rear legs positioned to let air flow under the body on the wool-less areas. They may also seek water to stand in. If it becomes really hot, their metabolism allows the body temperature to rise a few degrees, but, they must be able to drop the excess heat at night! This is why llamas do fine in even very hot high desert but can get heatstroke in tropical areas where the day/night temperature change is not so pronounced.

space needs
Llamas spend most of the day sitting around chewing their cud, but in the morning and the evening they like to run. We have a minimum of 3,000 square feet per adult pair in our city. (that is the equivalent of a 50' x 60' pen.) In the case of an owner with only this small space for his pets, exercising with the llama is very important.   The animal can be packed, walked or jogged; both owner and llama will find these excursions  enjoyable.

The minimum we quote is for two animals because llamas are miserable without company---and one llama needs the same amount of running room as two.  On the other end of the scale, a one or two-acre field, set up to allow free gallops, can hold many llamas as long as they are not being grazed and no herd personality problems arise.  If it can be managed, a rock or mound in the field creates a lot of exercise opportunities.  The llamas will play 'king of the mountain" with the highest spot in the enclosure, and they never seem to tire of it.

In field situations, arranging one corner as a catch-pen is very useful. Make it the place where they are usually fed so that  the pen will have positive associations for the herd. The least threatening way to catch a nervous llama is to pack many  llamas into one space, close the gate, and capture the desired animal while it is still surrounded by its friends.

fencing
Llamas do not generally challenge an enclosure.  A four-foot high fence is sufficient for most. (One warning: they come in many varied personalities, and about one in thirty is a "jumper". Like many other personality traits, this seems to be hereditary. All the advice below is for normal, run of the mill personalities.)  These are our comments on the various fence types.
> Our all-time favorite is a rather thick galvanized wire welded into a  6" grid to make a semi-rigid 16' x 4' section called a 'cattle panel'.  (shorter versions are sometimes called 'hog wire').  They are easy to set up, can be used as gates, and the llamas leave them alone.  Expensive, but versatile and reusable.
> Field wire fencing on steel T-posts needs a top rail of some sort, or the animals will "scrunch" it down.  It also needs to be secured at the bottom, whether a rail, tightened wire, tent stakes, or dirt.
> Wood rail: we have found a three-rail fence with ten-foot post intervals adequate as a low-security fence. This is easy for people to climb through. Llamas will chew on wood.
> The new plastic net fencing materials are highly visible and useful for temporary fencing.  Although not strong, they last very well, and we'd use them more if they weren't such an ugly orange.
>Chain link has worked well and is very durable, but expensive.  Tall chain link is good if the animals will be exposed to the public without supervision, as they can be fed through it without being harassed.
> Barbed wire is not recommended if you have a choice. Llamas have very prominent eyes and can cut them on the barbs. If a neighbor has barbed-wire fence, it is probably not a serious enough risk to replace it, but do be aware of the problem. We have some adjoining barbed-wire fences and have had two eye injuries and a nose cut (200-plus animals over 20 years.)
> Wire strand fencing is fine, but spacers of some kind must be used and streamers should be tied to the wires at intervals to make it more visible.
> Electric fencing is cheap and quite effective. Llamas learn quickly and remember forever.  It tends to short out when tree branches fall on it, and some llamas are venturesome enough to check out whether it is on.  One neighbor had a short in his that made a small noise, and it didn't take the llamas long to figure out when it was off.

 Higher-security fencing is needed if the llamas in question have a reason to want out of the enclosure. Typical situations include separating mothers and babies at weaning time; keeping open females away from studs and vice versa; keeping a more aggressive male away from rivals when females are around; segregating an animal away from the herd or other companionship; an animal who is on a special diet (and doesn't like it); and the habitual jumper. For these situations, a five or six-foot fence may be required. Any of the above types are fine, but wires or rails should be spaced closer.

shade and shelter
Most llamas, in most situations, do not need shelter. They are adapted to open spaces and climactic extremes.  On the other hand, in their native environment the weaker animals are frequently lost during severe weather. Mitigating the climate is advisable, therefore, when an animal is already at risk from a health standpoint. This includes llamas who are fighting an infection, obese, very thin, stressed, working hard (as in males chasing each other), parasite- burdened, in the last trimester of a pregnancy, the first months of lactation, newborns, those suffering from a chronic condition, recovering from an injury, and the very old.

In mild climates, llamas need no housing at all.  Dry cold is rarely a problem until the mercury dips into the teens. In wet cold and extreme temperatures, llamas benefit from a barn or a three-sided shed away from the wind.  When the temperature gets into the 90s or 100s, it is advisable to have some shade available; or lacking that, a sprinkler, a shallow wading pool, or a patch of wet sand. A tall, solid fence or wall is often sufficient shade if it blocks the western sun during the hottest part of the afternoon. As long as the temperature drops below 70 at night, dry daytime heat does not bother healthy llamas. (An unshorn long-wooled animal is at risk in hot weather. Shear or shade it.)

 Most llamas stay drier than they look in a rainstorm. Having washed many a llama, we can testify that it takes a lot of water pressure to get them wet to the skin. The exception is babies, whose soft coat does not contain as much protective guard hair. When the deluge is cold, hard and lasts for days on end, it is nice to have some sort of roof over their heads. In a pinch, a small plastic wastebasket liner, securely (but not tightly) taped in place, will keep the torso temporarily dry. It goes without saying that the baby so bagged should be under constant observation, and the bag should be removed when the rain stops and not left around the pasture to be a hazard. Don't be too quick to intervene under ordinary circumstances; llamas ARE waterproof.

feed
Hay of any kind is enjoyed by llamas. Grass hay is closest to the natural food of llamas. It is harder to get, but worth looking for as they love it!  Alfalfa is very rich, as it contains 12%--22% protein and increases their metabolism, and llamas will pick out the leaves and leave the stems (although they need these for fiber). It should be used sparingly during hot periods and not at all for overweight animals. Oat hay has more fiber and less protein. Although it is better for them than alfalfa, Llamas do not like it so well, but will "clean it up" if that is all that is available. Wheat and barley hay are about the same as oat.   Both are good feeds for hot periods.

Pelleted feeds are often used as a means to cut down on waste. Although it is not common, llamas (like other livestock) have been known to choke on pellets. The risk is almost exclusive to babies and weanlings; or to any llamas "gobbling" a very small, rabbit-type pellet. 1" diameter pellets and cubes are also used, but these seem too large for the young animals to chew.  We feed a pellet sold under the name "stable mix" which is produced by Elk Grove Milling. This is most versatile because it is low protein and the animals like it.  Most pelleted special feeds such as rabbit food are too rich for llamas. The University of Oregon has devised a "recipe" for a pelleted supplement for llamas containing a special balance of nutrients. This is for animals who are under stress (working packers, pregnant lactating does) and need a little extra.

pasture & browse
If pasture is available, llamas will do well without other feed.  We have heard that year-round pasture-only support requires one acre for every two llamas if the pasture is 'dry land', and one acre to three llamas for irrigated pasture.  Our own experience in this area is that it takes two llamas about a month to eat an overgrown quarter-acre pen flat  (not counting foxtails if the awns have already developed).   Llamas crop closer than cows or horses, but not so close as sheep.  They are easier on pastures and lawns than hoofed stock because of their soft feet and their natural dislike of muddy or swampy footing.  They seem to prefer broad-leafed weeds and will pick them out of the grass first.

Llamas love browse and will eat with great relish twigs, bark, leaves, needles, and parts of plants that look very prickly.  Too much of a good thing is not recommended of course (as for instance, when a large oak blew down in a friends' pasture.  The llamas, having enjoyed the falling leaves for years, proceeded to consume large quantities at once and became sick). However, they are very good at brush-clearing and will eat anything a deer does. Favorites we have noticed: roses, oak, poison oak, mulberry, roses, blackberry canes, grapes, roses, and domestic fruit trees (exceptions: walnuts and figs) of all kinds, especially members of the prunus (peaches, plums) and malus (apples) family.

Llamas generally do not eat plants that are poisonous; they taste bad. The animals most at risk of accidentally poisoning themselves are the ones starved for browse in their diet. Oleander, Rhododendron, Azalea, Tansy Ragwort and some varieties of fern are some of the plants to watch for. Lupine is mildly toxic at certain periods of its growth..

supplements
Grain (oats, bran, C.O.B), cottonseed meal, soybeans and the like may be used as a reward or to supplement a thin animal. Be careful how this is stored! Although they are hardy animals, some llamas are just like horses, cows, sheep and goats when it comes to grain---if they get into the goodies, they overconsume grain, go into acidosis, and it can kill them. You don't know which ones are prone to this until it's too late, but youngsters under two are especially vulnerable.

Minerals can be fed free-choice, mixed in the water, or as part of a salt ration. Because local feeds have differing mineral content, specific balances may be recommended for your area; check with other local livestock ranchers or your feed store. Llamas have generally the same mineral needs as goats; sulfured salt blocks encourage coat growth. Selenium seems to be a greater need in llamas than other livestock.  We simply use a mineralized salt block.

water
Llamas can drink a lot at one time, so they should have a large drinking container. Keep it clean, of course, and check it often. We use a livestock tank with a float valve out in the field, and an old bathtub in the yard. Young packers may be afraid to drink from rushing streams for the first time, so be sure they have many opportunities to drink the first trip out. One of ours used to drink from his own canteen!

Automatic stock waterers of the kind used for horses are fine if they are the kind that does not require pushing with the nose to refill.  Llamas are sensitive about pressure on their lips and using the nose to push goes against their nature.  If the automatic refill waterers are used, make sure they are set low enough for babies to use---about 30" above the floor.

veterinary care
On the average, llamas are tougher than most domestic species. However, they are moderately susceptible to the usual diseases of ruminants. Llamas are very stoic and do not give many clues when they are not feeling up to par, so get to know your animals and take changes in their behavior seriously! Because they are rarer than other livestock, it can be hard to find an experienced vet, so make sure you have a working relationship BEFORE a problem arises. Although a vet who specializes in ruminants (goats, sheep, and cows) will be familiar with many llama problems, there is no substitute for specific experience. We have been fortunate to find a vet who has invested much effort to learn about the specific problems of llamas.

The most usual health problems associated with llamas are those of the gastrointestinal tract, starting with FAT! To tell an animal's weight, don't feel the spine or hipbones; these will always stick out unless the llama is overwhelmingly obese. Look between the hind legs. They should not be "padded" to the point where they touch. If the upper leg looks stringy and you can see the outline of the stifle (back knee) joint, the llama is too thin. A more certain way of determining condition is to run your hand from the front of the breastbone to the area where the "horsehide" meets the neck wool. If the flesh above the breastbone feels like Jell-O, then the animal is too fat. If the boniness seems to extend all the way up, the llama is too thin. A fit llama should have a solid muscled feel above the breastbone.

If you teach your llama to enjoy being scratched, you will have a weekly hands-on norm to compare against. Start with the back, near the shoulder, or the side of the neck. Almost all lamas love this if they are not busy being frightened that you will restrain them and poke them with a needle. The rainy season is a good time to begin scratching, as they miss their dust-roll. If the llama seems wary of your hands or afraid to come close, a long-handled back-scratching tool (such as a child's plastic rake) may make them feel less vulnerable.

diseases
This is not a complete list of health problems, but it gives a starting point. We are not veterinary experts and this booklet does not try to cover any of these subjects, just to give a layman's overview. Unless you have many animals over several years, as we have, the odds are goo that you will never see any of these problems.

Most health problems can be classified as infections or environmental. In areas where infectious health problems are a problem they should be vaccinated against. The most common are: Clostridium perfringens A, B, and C; Tetanus, Tuberculosis, Leptospirosis, Equine Rhinopnuemonitis, Rabies, Parasites: internal (worms), and external (mites, lice and mange). Environmental health problems are heat stroke, mineral and vitamin deficiencies, overweight, underweight, grain acidosis (mentioned above), poisoning, gastric ulcers, intestinal injury.

The most common causes of death are accidental, of which strangulation when an untrained animal gets "hung up" in a rope takes the lead, judging from anecdotes told at llama gatherings. Don't tie an inexperienced llama unless you will be there to extricate him if he wraps the rope around his neck!

grooming
Short wooled llamas do not need any special grooming or shearing. Most medium and short wooled llamas retain a distinct shedding cycle, which disposes of excess wool and mats. Paradoxical as it may seem, they shed in the fall. The reason is that the shed cycle is triggered by summer heat; the fiber shaft grows in very thin when it gets hot. By the time the fiber is an inch or so longer, (early fall) the thin, weak, place is breaking off.

This one subject is the source of more misunderstandings between llamas and their owners that almost any other. First of all, the human should understand that the llama is a self-grooming animal who does not, by nature, welcome your help.  Unless carefully and patiently trained otherwise, an owner's well-intentioned attempts to make his llama look better (by human standards) and maybe even be more comfortable is perceived by the llama as the moves of a predator who insists on raking claws over off-limits parts of the groomee's body, creating discomfort and fear.  Try to put yourself in the animal's place and think how you might feel if an uninvited person started to brush the hair in your armpits!

With a tremendous investment in careful, methodical training, grooming can be turned into a process which both owner and llama can enjoy.  Usually, however, it becomes a tedious chore for the owner and an 'un-training' misery for the animal.  Which scenario is true for you depends on the frequency of grooming and your technique.  We decided that both we and our animals had better ways to spend our time together, but we also try to make sure they have a good dust-rolling spot in each new pasture so that they don't pick up new stickers.  The brush from a stiff push-broom also adorns the gate post leading to the catch pen; when we set the gate just slightly open the llamas have to squeeze past the bristles coming and going, which removes shedding tags of wool.  We also raise short-wooled llamas.

A heavily wooled llama should be given some respite from his blanket. A heavy coat is not necessary for his comfort --- the wild lamas do very well in the freezing mountains with much less! The coat was bred into him for man's purposes, not his own; and when it bothers him, man must deal with the burden. The whole animal need not be sheared; nor is it advisable to shear right down to the skin.   Shearing is best done in the spring.  Because ours dislike this process and we want to avoid the negative association in our training plan, we generally use a little tranquilizer to soften the experience.

transportation
One of the big advantages of llamas over other pack stock is the ease with which you can get them around. It is a good idea to accustom your llama to get in and out of many kinds of vehicles. They can be taught to jump into the back of a pickup or van, or can be hauled in conventional stock trailers. Whatever you use, remember that they prefer to ride seated, which means that the considerate owner will provide padding for their knees. We have used everything from rubber stall mats to thick layers of straw or old carpet. Most llamas also prefer to sit or stand at an angle to the direction of travel to help absorb the motion of the vehicle.

It is not advisable to tie llamas when traveling. As with staking out, they can become tangled in the rope. If there are more than one, they can get tangled in each other's ropes with disastrous consequences.  The only method of tying we use during transport is cross tying a standing llama or short-tying a seated llama by the collar, and then only when the llama is thoroughly trained to this method and we can observe the animal at all times. It is far easier in the long run to arrange adequate barriers within and around the vehicle so that they can be transported without tying.

If the trip is a long one, they should be emptied at regular intervals. Most llamas that travel frequently and are given the opportunity to defecate outside the vehicle quickly learn to "hold it". You can facilitate the emptying process in various ways. First, before you leave home, get a large coffee can and scoop up some fresh stuff from the communal poop pile. Seal it to keep it moist. When you make a potty stop, hold his nose in or near the can -- the odor will stimulate him to go. Another technique that seems to work best on males is to get their rear feet wet. Try to keep the vehicle free of manure smells if you don't want them to think it's a poop pile.

Pickup trucks should be fitted with high sides, back, and front to restrain the llamas if they are to be transported loose. (Our most experienced packers are trained to jump into any standard pickup bed if their special mats have been placed there; then they sit on command and we fasten their collars to an extra-strong  cargo bar adjusted across the front of the bed to insure they remain seated.  Training them to do this took several months and a specially-made trailer.)  A llama can also be taught to crawl under a low camper shell on his knees (it goes without saying that there is a limit to the time that a llama can be asked to sit like this without exercise). They can be transported easily in standard vans. With short removable stall partitions, we usually carry four large pack llamas in the back of our GM van. A llama needs a stall space about 20-24" wide and 72-60" long. It is a good idea to partition any area with more than two animals, to prevent one from sitting diagonally across all the available space, crowding all the others. You especially want to prevent "territorial arguments" between llamas inside any vehicle where you are also an occupant---spit stinks!

companionship
Llamas are herd animals and they are extremely unhappy if they are denied companionship. Being communicative by nature, they do best when kept with their own kind, since other species cannot speak, and rarely understand "llamish"---the collection of humms, clucks, stances and body positions by which they communicate so eloquently. A llama who has no other companionship is susceptible to intestinal disorders caused by an overactive digestive tract, one of the symptoms of loneliness.

If there are reasons that you must keep a llama without another llama, he can be kept with other herd animals. Ruminants (goats, sheep, cows, and camels) are best, since their communication is similar to the llamas. If they have been raised in the companionship of dogs, donkeys, or horses, these species will work. Humans are not OK as sole companions for llamas, since it is extremely inappropriate for them to engage in the kind of interaction (spitting, food fights, mating arguments) that llamas engage in among their herd.